Anthony Everitt, Hadrian: And the Triumph of Rome (affiliate link). New York: Random House, 2009. 392 pages.
I enjoy reading biographies about Roman emperors. The Roman Empire was the most dominant empire the world had ever seen, and its rulers wielded unprecedented power.
I recently read a biography on Trajan. I wanted to follow that up with one on his successor, Hadrian. I knew Hadrian as the emperor who built a wall to keep the barbarians away. Yet I assumed there was more to him, and I was right.
Hadrian was born Publius Aelius Hadrianus on January 24, AD 76. His family came from the region of present-day Spain, likely making their wealth in the olive oil industry (3). His father died at the age of 40, leaving ten-year-old Hadrian fatherless (11). He was placed under the guardianship of his cousin Trajan. At that time, Trajan was building a respectable career in the military. His wife, Plotina, became fond of Hadrian and supported his career for the rest of her life (11).
Emperor Nerva, who needed an heir who could stand up to the Praetorian Guard and the senate, ultimately adopted Trajan (86). At that point, Trajan had little time for Hadrian, even though Hadrian was Trajan’s closest relative. When Nerva died, Hadrian seized the opportunity to inform Trajan that he was now emperor. That exchange strengthened their relationship.
Trajan was unpretentious. He talked winsomely with senators and ate the same rations as his soldiers. When formally entering Rome, he walked humbly (97). Trajan and his wife, Plotina, seemed to have been close, though Trajan was notoriously attracted to boys rather than to women. In Roman culture, such attraction was not viewed with the abhorrence it is today. Trajan and Plotina had no children, and therefore no heirs.
Trajan gave Hadrian various jobs to prepare him for greater service. The first time Hadrian read a message to the senate on behalf of Trajan, the listeners laughed at his poor enunciation of Latin (100). Hadrian married Sabina. But unlike Trajan and Plotina, the couple never grew fond of each other. Hadrian, like Trajan, preferred boys to women, so he never had a child (102). To modern ears, it seems incomprehensible that a man who preferred having sex with boys could be a good ruler. The Greeks liked to put a noble spin on this kind of “love,” and the man was to continue being the boy’s friend and patron even after their relationship became platonic. Nevertheless, the practice was morally wrong, even if it wasn’t seen as problematic at the time.
Near the end of Trajan’s reign, he decided to conquer the Parthians, an ancient foe of Rome. He amassed a large army and was invincible wherever he marched. Even in his sixties, Trajan led his men on foot (156). Eventually, it became apparent that it would be extremely difficult to rule the new territory. In comparing himself to Alexander the Great, Trajan lamented that “I would certainly have crossed over to the Indians, too, if I were still young” (158). During the Parthian war, Hadrian vanished from sight. Trajan was certainly using him in some way, but his contributions are lost to history (163).
While away, Trajan may have suffered a stroke and began to fade quickly. He was taken by ship in an effort to return him to Rome, as no emperor had ever died outside of Italy (165). He asked his guests aboard the ship to provide ten names of people who would make a suitable heir. Clearly, he was not yet set on Hadrian (165). Then Trajan retired to his room and was never seen alive again. Nonetheless, letters were sent to the senate announcing that Trajan had adopted Hadrian (165). It appears that Plotina had put everything in place for Hadrian to become the next emperor. Hadrian would always love and admire her.
Hadrian’s reign got off to a bumpy start. He did not return to Rome immediately but first took time to gain the army’s loyalty. He also had four former consuls executed due to an alleged plot to overthrow him (169). This incident haunted Hadrian for years and cast a shadow over his character throughout his reign.
Hadrian also made an unpopular pragmatic decision. He concluded that the Roman Empire could not keep expanding (173). He built walls in many places, such as in Great Britain and North Africa. The walls hindered invasions from the barbarians, but they also marked the limit of the empire. For Romans, who took pride in their frequent military victories, this tactic made the new emperor appear weak. Hadrian also abandoned the new territories of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria that Trajan had recently conquered (173). Hadrian rightly reasoned that the money and men required to retain them would far outweigh any potential accrued benefits (177).
Hadrian realized he needed to gain public approval, so he adopted many of the same practices as Trajan. He wiped away all debts to the public treasury, which gained him the favor of many indebted citizens (188). Hadrian also embarked on many massive building projects. Though he almost never named the buildings after himself, they contributed to his enduring legacy.
Hadrian showed tolerance toward Christians, and he had no patience for those who leveled false charges against them (217). His treatment of Jews was more severe. He sought to build a temple to Jupiter on the temple mount and had a statue of himself placed where the former holy of holies had stood (304). Simon bar Kokhba finally launched a violent uprising (298). It proved to be one of the greatest crises of Hadrian’s reign. When the revolt was finally suppressed, Jews were banned from Jerusalem. The province of Judea was merged with Syria around 135 AD, and the name “Palestine” first came into use (304). The devastating truth was that the “pax romana” was maintained only by brutal force (305).
The final stage of Hadrian’s reign involved seeking a successor. He first chose Lucius Aelius Caesar as his heir. Hadrian had a nephew, Pedanus Fuscus, who was his closest relation. But Hadrian hated Pedanus’ father. Pedanus launched a revolt when he was snubbed, and he and his hapless father were both executed. Shortly before his death, Pedanus’ father said, “That I have done nothing wrong, you gods know very well. As for Hadrian, this is my only prayer, that he may long for death, yet be unable to die” (313).
This wish appears to have come to pass. Hadrian’s health continued to decline until his pain was so severe that he begged his doctor to kill him. Instead, the doctor committed suicide (318).
Hadrian’s chosen heir suffered from ill health and died before Hadrian did. Hadrian had grown fond of a young boy named Marcus Aurelius, and he desired for him to become emperor. Marcus was considered too young to ascend to the throne, so Hadrian chose someone to bridge the gap until Marcus was ready. He selected another wealthy man to be his heir, but he made that man adopt Aurelius so he could one day become emperor (316). The plan was successful, and the two emperors who followed Hadrian became the last two of the Five Good Emperors.
Hadrian is something of a mystery. He did not generally abuse or flaunt his power. Nevertheless, he did not endear himself to others as Trajan had. He made some astute managerial decisions. But compared to Trajan’s flashy military victories, Hadrian seemed dull and uninspiring. Hadrian’s executions of four prominent men early in his reign tarnished many people’s views of him, and he was never esteemed to the degree Trajan had been.
This book probes into the unseemly side of Roman life and provides interesting glimpses into that ancient period of history. Everitt is a good writer. He also wrote an award-winning biography on Cicero, which I intend to read. I enjoy reading about Roman history in part because it helps me understand the biblical age and early period of the church. If you wish to learn more about this time period, you may find this book interesting.
Rating: 3
