Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (affiliate link). New York: Vintage Books, 2005. 721 pages.
As I write this review, the movie based on this book recently won the Academy Award for Best Picture. I have not seen the movie. I tend to prefer 700-1,000 page books! Robert Oppenheimer is a fascinating, complex, and controversial character. He was a brilliant physicist and the “father” of the atomic bomb. He was also viciously attacked and viewed as a security threat during the McCarthy era. Clearly, his life provided ample fodder for an award-winning film!
Oppenheimer’s parents were Jewish immigrants from Germany. It seems that Oppenheimer was always sensitive about both his Jewishness and immigrant status (9). This insecurity led to a fervent desire to prove his loyalty to the United States. His father became a successful businessman in New York City, so Oppenheimer grew up with money and opportunities (12). He later claimed, “My life as a child did not prepare me for the fact that the world is full of cruel and bitter things” (21). Oppenheimer was obviously intelligent, even at a young age. He took an early interest in collecting and studying rocks. After corresponding with the New York Mineralogy Society, he was invited to deliver a lecture. He was only twelve (14).
Oppenheimer was a brilliant, socially awkward boy. He had few friends (23). He attended a unique private school that taught that people should be catalysts for making the world better (19). This social concern motivated Oppenheimer throughout his life and led him to support many left-wing social projects in the 1930s before doing so went out of vogue. The authors note that “Robert’s seemingly brittle and delicate shell actually disguised a stoic personality built of stubborn pride and determination, a characteristic that would reappear throughout his life” (21). Oppenheimer was occasionally picked on by other boys, possibly because he was Jewish or socially awkward. In later years, Oppenheimer valued his friendships and his friends’ high regard for him (27). He was valedictorian of his graduating class in high school.
Oppenheimer attended Harvard. He studied under outstanding professors, several of whom would win Nobel Prizes. His excellent education was partly due to the fact that his parents could afford to send him to the best schools and partly due to his obvious brilliance. One person observed that “. . . he always gave the impression that he was thinking very deeply about things” (30). Oppenheimer went on to study at Cambridge and then Gottingen. During this time, he made many noteworthy friends in the field of physics. None would be more influential than Niels Bohr (34).
Oppenheimer faced various challenges during his education. He was subject to bouts of depression (35). He also used tobacco heavily, a habit that ultimately led to an untimely death (40). While at Cambridge, he faced an emotional crisis that led him to leave a poisoned apple on a professor’s desk (46).
Oppenheimer often found solace within books and his own mind. He eventually resolved his youthful angst by reading Marcel Proust (51). Afterward, he claimed he was finally able to relate to others (52). In later years, Oppenheimer could be extremely charming when he tried. As a student, he spoke up often in class, even challenging his professors. He once quipped, “I need physics more than friends” (91). At times his fellow students saw this behavior as arrogance and showmanship. But Oppenheimer was eager to learn, and his mind grasped concepts extremely quickly. Oppenheimer published two papers while at Cambridge and seven while at Gottingen (59, 63). He was recognized as a rising star in the field.
Oppenheimer was always close to his younger brother Frank, his only sibling (71). Oppenheimer had fallen in love with New Mexico and spent his summers there. In 1947, he and Frank bought a rustic cabin in their favorite part of the state (73). He claimed, “My two great loves are physics and New Mexico. It’s a pity they can’t be combined!” (81). Oppenheimer would ultimately recommend Los Alamos as the site for the construction of the atomic bomb.
Though he was offered teaching positions in various eastern schools, including Harvard, Oppenheimer accepted a faculty position at the University of California at Berkley and Cal Tech (73). At first, he was a poor lecturer, having neither the training nor aptitude for teaching. It is said that “He refused to suffer fools—or even ordinary physicists” (83). His biographers note that “His physics was good, but his arithmetic was awful. Robert did not have the patience to stick with any one problem very long” (88). Oppenheimer was quick to recognize a problem or a solution. He was also good at stimulating other people’s thinking so they could focus on issues he raised. This experience provided excellent training when he directed Los Alamos. The authors note that “Oppenheimer’s genius lay in his ability to synthesize the entire field of study” (90).
Oppenheimer was instinctively generous, but he never saw a need for religion. He became fascinated by the Bhagavad Gita and learned Sanskrit so he could read it (99). That was just one of the many languages he learned over his lifetime. Until 1934, he remained politically indifferent (104). His mind was too preoccupied with science. But in 1933, Adolph Hitler came to power, which caused Oppenheimer to think politically and socially. He met Jean Tatlock, a communist, and she introduced him to her world of left-wing activists (111). He developed a passionate relationship with her and proposed marriage several times. Though she loved him, she never accepted his proposal.
One of the communist friendships Oppenheimer developed at this time was with Haakon Chevalier (117). Chevalier was a professor, and the two intellectuals enjoyed each other’s company. Oppenheimer donated to various social and left-wing causes. He claimed he was never a member of the Communist Party, but he sympathized with many of their concerns in America, such as labor unions working for fair pay and just treatment for laborers. During the age of the New Deal, many people were intrigued by communism’s claims to protect the working person. There were obviously social and justice issues aplenty in America at the time, especially during the Great Depression. Oppenheimer also sympathized with the communists who were fighting fascists in Spain, and he made financial contributions to support them.
Frank Oppenheimer and his wife formally joined the Communist Party in 1937 (134). Oppenheimer was not pleased. The authors claim Oppenheimer desired to be liked, and he believed in social justice (136). As many of his left-wing friends were involved with communist organizations and efforts at that time, Oppenheimer became involved as well, though he claimed he never formally joined the Communist Party (138, 142).
By 1940, Oppenheimer had become disillusioned with the Communist Party. The Nazi-Soviet Pact troubled him. As it became clear that America would be striving to build an atomic bomb before Hitler could, Oppenheimer became extremely cautious about his left-wing activities, knowing they may hinder his ability to work with the US government (176).
Tatlock finally broke off her relationship with Oppenheimer. Soon after, he met Kitty Harrison, who was married at the time (154). She had previously been married to a communist who died fighting fascists in Spain. They married and had two children together.
As the U.S. government began collecting top physicists to work on the nuclear weapon, many of his friends and associates were enlisted. Several of them spoke in favor of Oppenheimer being included. The scientists believed only an atomic bomb might dislodge Hitler from Europe. It became the means by which scientists could serve their country and help win the war.
Oppenheimer quickly became indispensable to the team working on the bomb (179). One colleague claimed, “His grasp of problems was immediate—he could often understand an entire problem after he had heard a single sentence” (182). Colonel Leslie Groves was selected as the military leader over The Manhattan Project. He was a tough, no-nonsense man who came to trust Oppenheimer implicitly (184). Obtaining security clearance for Oppenheimer was problematic due to his involvement with communist organizations and has associations with many communists or communist sympathizers. Nevertheless, Groves liked him and believed he could control him. The FBI had opened a file on Oppenheimer in March 1941 (137). The file would balloon in size over the years.
Oppenheimer was generally revered by the scientists at Los Alamos. He had never previously been an administrator, but he rose to the challenge.
During a visit to Los Alamos by Niels Bohr, Oppenheimer was impacted by the ethical questions his mentor raised about using the atomic bomb. Many of the scientists assumed they had to build a bomb before Hitler did or they would lose the war. But they had not thought deeply about a post-war era in which nuclear weapons existed. Bohr suggested that scientific knowledge be shared to prevent a nuclear arms race. He assumed that secrecy would drive nations to build up arms much more quickly than if information was shared (269).
Oppenheimer told the authorities that his friend Chevalier told him that a man named Eltenton was trying to help the Soviet Union in its war against the Nazis. The Soviet Union was an ally of the United States at that time and suffering enormous casualties. Eltenton had offered to pass along any information Oppenheimer could share. Chevalier mentioned the offer while having dinner at Oppenheimer’s house (238). Oppenheimer claimed doing so would be treason and closed the subject. This exchange caused Oppenheimer enormous grief in the years to come.
The book includes a fascinating discussion on the decision to drop the atomic bomb. There is much evidence that the Japanese knew they had lost the war and were seeking honorable terms of surrender (300). Unlike the Germans, the Japanese had no nuclear program. With Germany’s surrender, the race to the first nuclear bomb was assured to the Americans. The Japanese’ only demand was that they be allowed to keep their emperor.
Oppenheimer and his fellow scientists believed that if a Japanese official was allowed to observe the detonation of an atomic bomb in New Mexico, the weapon would never have to be used against Japanese civilians. But the US government was concerned that the Soviet Union was going to join the war against Japan by August 15 and wanted the war to be over by then. They also wanted to demonstrate the devastating power of the bomb as they prepared for post-war negotiations with the Soviets.
Oppenheimer had insisted on testing the bomb before it was used in combat. He named the test site Trinity (304). It was detonated on July 16, 1945. After the enormous effort to produce a workable bomb, this experience was exhilarating (308). Yet the bomb’s magnitude caused many scientists to fear for what they had unleashed on the world. No Japanese observers were invited. Harry Truman had decided to drop the bomb on the unsuspecting city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 (315). Three days later, a second bomb destroyed Nagasaki (317). Many scientists were appalled at the unnecessary slaughter of a second city after the enemy already knew the war was lost.
One of this book’s strengths is the way it examines the moral and ethical issues surrounding the creation and deployment of the atomic bomb. It also presents a chilling dichotomy between the high-minded scientists and pragmatic politicians. Many scientists worried they had sold out humanity by using their scientific abilities to create a weapon of mass destruction that could potentially end modern civilization.
One of Oppenheimer’s colleagues named Teller urged that a super bomb (or hydrogen bomb) be quickly developed as well (325). At that point, Oppenheimer believed a more powerful bomb would serve no useful purpose in war. Its only use would be genocide. He refused to endorse the pursuit of still more powerful weapons. This stance caused Teller to greatly resent Oppenheimer.
Throughout this period, Oppenheimer was conflicted. He believed the world must work together in openness to avoid a disastrous arms race. He met with President Harry Truman on October 25, 1945, to explain his concerns (331). Truman told him he did not think the Soviets would ever develop an atomic bomb. Oppenheimer was appalled at Truman’s lack of understanding. Oppenheimer failed to charm Truman as he had often done with others in similar situations. Instead, he told the president, “I feel I have blood on my hands” (332). This statement angered Truman, who later called him a “cry baby scientist” (332). The authors conclude, “On this important occasion, the composure and power of persuasion of the usually charming and self-possessed Oppenheimer abandoned him” (332).
Oppenheimer became an international celebrity. He was sought after to serve on important boards and to deliver prominent lectures. He thoroughly enjoyed the accolades. He was asked to serve on the Advisory Committee to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (339). One member claimed that “. . . the most stimulating and creative mind among us was Robert Oppenheimer’s” (340). When he arrived late to the first meeting due to a snowstorm, Oppenheimer discovered he had been elected the committee chairman in his absence (352).
During this time, J. Edgar Hoover directed the FBI to watch Oppenheimer closely. He sent a three-page summary of his file to the White House (338). Oppenheimer’s file would collect thousands of pages of notes and memos during the following years. Though Hoover could never find evidence of espionage or disloyalty, he deeply distrusted Oppenheimer. He authorized wiretaps and other efforts to gather whatever incriminating evidence he could, to no avail. Hoover even floated the idea that Oppenheimer might be considering defecting to the Soviet Union, though he had no evidence to support this claim.
In late 1946, Lewis Strauss offered Oppenheimer a job leading a research institute next to Princeton (360). Among the various notable scholars in residence was Albert Einstein. Strauss would eventually become Oppenheimer’s implacable enemy and would cause him enormous harm. The authors note that Strauss “. . . was pathologically ambitious and extraordinarily prickly, a combination that made him a particularly dangerous opponent in bureaucratic warfare” (362).
Oppenheimer began an adulterous relationship with Ruth Tolman (363). Though Oppenheimer remained married to Kitty until he died and seemed to genuinely love and need her, he engaged in at least two known affairs.
On August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb (416). At that point, Oppenheimer believed it was better to communicate candidly with the Soviets rather than promoting a stance of secrecy and suspicion (417). He also believed that with numerous atomic bombs at a nation’s disposal, a superbomb was unnecessary. He claimed that the issue was not that the superbomb was too large but that its targets would be too small (422). Oppenheimer also worried that the US Air Force’s policy of “containment” was built around nuclear weapons rather than conventional forces. If there were hostilities with the Soviet Union, the US would have no alternative but to resort to nuclear weapons (418). In one memorable speech, Oppenheimer claimed that “We might be likened to two scorpions in a bottle, each capable of killing the other, but only at the risk of his own life” (465). Nevertheless, despite offering some compelling reasons to rethink the current US foreign and nuclear policy, his ideas and suggestions were summarily rejected by government officials.
Lewis Strauss grew to hate Oppenheimer and was convinced he was dangerous for the country. On May 25, 1953, Strauss launched his campaign to destroy and discredit Oppenheimer (467). The chronicle of events laid out in the book is devastating. Strauss worked closely with Hoover at the FBI to gather any inuendo or suspicion into a file. Hoover installed wiretaps. On Christmas Eve, agents appeared at Oppenheimer’s home to present charges and to confiscate any classified material in his possession (487).
The description in the book of Oppenheimer’s hearing is deeply disturbing. It demonstrates the inquisitional and paranoid nature of the McCarthy era. Numerous laws were broken in the name of fighting communists. Ego and personal animus obviously played huge roles in the proceedings. To no one’s surprise, the panel voted to condemn Oppenheimer.
The science committee was largely outraged at the disgraceful way Oppenheimer was treated. It became apparent how dangerous it could be to challenge or question government positions if even someone who had contributed so much to America’s victory could have his loyalty questioned.
Both Truman and Eisenhower sensed Oppenheimer was innocent. But they feared appearing too light on communism, so they allowed Oppenheimer to be lynched.
Strauss faced severe backlash. When Eisenhower nominated him for commerce secretary, the nomination was rejected due to JFK’s vote (576). Oppenheimer’s friends urged JFK to prevent someone of Strauss’s character from obtaining such an influential post.
After becoming president, JFK invited Oppenheimer to the White House and later awarded him the Enrico Fermi prize (575). A play was written about Oppenheimer that reignited his global popularity (578).
Oppenheimer eventually began to lecture once again. He always shied away from complaining of his fate or criticizing government policy. It was as if he longed to be esteemed by his fellow Americans. Oppenheimer eventually resigned from the Institute he had led. Even then, Strauss made life as difficult as possible.
Eventually Oppenheimer’s chain-smoking habits caught up with him, and he developed cancer. He fought bravely but succumbed in his sleep on Feb. 18, 1967 (587). His wife died a few years later. His only daughter ultimately committed suicide (591). His son lived in relative obscurity.
To this day, Oppenheimer is a controversial figure. He is universally recognized for being brilliant. Yet even world-famous people like Oppenheimer battle insecurities. Oppenheimer’s life also shows how people must live within the context of their age. Oppenheimer grew up in an age of antisemitism. He reached his peak during the crisis of the Great Depression and then World War Two. His downfall came during the McCarthy era. Though we might resent the period of history in which we have been placed, it is not ours to choose. We must make the best of the times in which we live.
I found this book fascinating. There are two authors, but the book appears to be written seamlessly. At times they discuss scientific matters that go far beyond my understanding, nevertheless, the book keeps the story attainable. The authors appear to remain objective. They discuss Oppenheimer’s obvious shortcomings. Perhaps they could have delt more directly with his infidelities. For a man who was tried for his integrity, these obvious breaches of character could have cast some doubt on his trustworthiness. I found that the discussion concerning the decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japanese cities and the chronicling of Strauss’s witch hunt against Oppenheimer provided some powerful insights into the dark side of politics.
This book provides a fascinating look into a pivotal time in world history. It also outlines the changing roles of scientists in modern economy and warfare.
I recommend this book. It is eye opening and addresses huge issues that continue to affect society today.
Rating: 4
